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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
7.1 Glossary of technical
terms
This glossary of technical terms indicates the source of the definition. It presents,
in some instances, more than one definition of a term, with the second entry
providing an expanded explanation. Expanded definitions may also focus on the
application of the terms in the field of genetic modification rather than in their
widest context. Entries have been edited to conform with report style if necessary.
Some entries, marked [New Zealand], provide an explanation particularly applicable
to New Zealand circumstances.
allergen
A substance that causes an allergic reaction.
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food
also allergic reaction, allergy: an exaggerated physical response to some
antigen, typically a common environmental substance, that produces little or
no response in the general population, resulting when histamine or histamine-
like substances are released from injured cells. It involves various respiratory
and dermatological symptoms, such as sneezing or itching.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
also allergenicity: Ability to induce various types of allergic responses (also
known as hypersensitivity responses).
Virology/Immunology
antibiotic resistance
The ability of a bacterium to synthesise a protein that neutralises an antibiotic.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
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Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
also antibiotic resistance genes: Genes in a microorganism that confer
resistance to antibiotics, for example by coding for enzymes that destroy it, by
coding for surface proteins that prevent it from entering the microorganism,
or by being a mutant form of the antibiotic's target so that it can ignore it.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
antigen
A usually protein or carbohydrate substance (as a toxin or enzyme) capable of
stimulating an immune response.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
bacteriophage
see phage
biodiversity, biological diversity
The existence of a wide range of different types of organisms in a given place
at a given time.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
The variability among living organisms from all sources including, among
other things, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological
complexes of which they are a part; this includes diversity within species,
between species and of ecosystems.
World Foundation for Environment and Development
also biodiversity prospecting or `bioprospecting': The search for useful
genetic and biochemical compounds and materials and related information in
nature.
biodynamic
Of or relating to a system of farming that uses only organic materials for
fertilising and soil conditioning.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
biomedicine
Medicine based on the application of the principles of the natural sciences and
especially biology and biochemistry.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
also biomedical engineering: The use of engineering technology,
instrumentation and methods to solve medical problems, such as improving
our understanding of physiology and the manufacture of artificial limbs and
organs.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
bioremediation
The use of plants or microorganisms to clean up pollution or to solve other
environmental problems.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
biosecurity
The protection of people and natural resources from unwanted organisms
capable of causing harm.
Environmental Performance Indicators Programme
[New Zealand] The cost effective protection of any natural resources from
organisms capable of causing unwanted harm. The Biosecurity Act 1993 is
the main act dealing with biosecurity issues. It has resulted in changes to the
way biosecurity is managed and viewed.
Previously, pest management largely had an agricultural or horticultural
focus. But this tended to overlook other pests, like environmental pests. With
the passing of the Biosecurity Act, when we now talk about biosecurity pests,
we mean a wide range of organisms that are harmful, not only to production
industries, but also to the environment (including the land, freshwater and
marine environments, as well as to people). That includes undesirable animals,
undesirable plants such as weeds, and organisms that attack animals and plants
(including disease-causing microorganisms).
MAF Rural Bulletin May 1999
biotechnology
Any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms,
or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific
use.
World Foundation for Environment and Development
The industrial use of living organisms or biological techniques developed
through basic research. Biotechnology products include antibiotics, insulin,
interferon, recombinant DNA, and techniques such as waste recycling. Much
older forms of biotechnology include breadmaking, cheesemaking and brewing
wine and beer.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
chromosome
Structure containing DNA and proteins in the cell nucleus.
Bernie May
Components in a cell that contain genetic information. Each chromosome
contains numerous genes. Chromosomes occur in pairs: one obtained from
the mother; the other from the father. Chromosomes of different pairs are
Section 7: Glossaries
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Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
often visibly different from each other.
About Biotechnology
clone
(of DNA): An identical copy. The term may be applied to a fragment of DNA,
a plasmid that contains a single fragment of DNA, or a bacterium that contains
such a plasmid.
(of animal): An identical offspring, generally created by transfer of an identical
nucleus into a recipient egg.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
(1) To insert a piece of DNA into a vector for subsequent amplification and
isolation of that specific piece;
(2) A piece of DNA composed of a vector and its insert.
Bernie May
also cloning vector: Biological carriers such as plasmids, bacteriophages, or
cosmids used to amplify an inserted DNA sequence.
Bernie May
containment
(biological): Containment based on a biological barrier that prevents the
transmission or escape of an organism.
(physical): Containment achieved by the control of access, restriction of air
circulation, and/or the provision of other secure physical barriers.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
also containment facility: [New Zealand] A place approved in accordance with
section 39 of the Biosecurity Act, for holding organisms that should not
become established in New Zealand.
MAF Biosecurity Authority
copyright
The exclusive legal right to reproduce, publish, and sell the matter and form
(as of a literary, musical, or artistic work).
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
cross-pollination
The transfer of pollen from the anther of the flower of one plant to the flowers
of a different plant.
Garden Web
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, the chemical at the centre of the cells of living things
which controls the structure and purpose of each cell and carries genetic
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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
information during reproduction.
Cambridge International Dictionary of English
A nucleic acid that constitutes the genetic material of all cellular organisms
and the DNA viruses; DNA replicates and controls through messenger RNA
the inheritable characteristics of all organisms. A molecule of DNA is made up
of two parallel twisted chains of alternating units of phosphoric acid and
deoxyribose, linked by crosspieces of the purine bases and the pyrimidine
bases, resulting in a right-handed helical structure, that carries genetic
information encoded in the sequence of the bases.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
ecosystem
The complex of a community of organisms and its environment functioning
as an ecological unit.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
enzymes
Proteins that control the various steps in all chemical reactions.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
Any of numerous complex proteins that are produced by living cells and
catalyse specific biochemical reactions at body temperatures.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
also restriction enzyme: any of various enzymes that break DNA into
fragments at specific sites in the interior of the molecule - called also
restriction endonuclease.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
field trial
A trial of a new product in actual situations for which it is intended.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
gene
A unit of hereditary information. A gene is a section of a DNA molecule that
specifies the production of a particular protein.
About Biotechnology
A locus on a chromosome that encodes a specific protein or several related
proteins. It is considered the functional unit of heredity.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
gene therapy
The process of introducing new genes into the DNA of ... cells to correct a
genetic disease or flaw. (1) Human gene therapy: Insertion of normal DNA
Section 7: Glossaries
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Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
directly into cells to correct a genetic defect. (2) Somatic cell gene therapy:
The repair or replacement of a defective gene within somatic tissue.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
(3) Germ-line (gene) therapy: The repair or replacement of a defective gene
within the gamete-forming tissues, which produces a heritable change in an
organism's genetic constitution.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
gene transfer
The transfer of genes into a cell by any of a number of different methods
available.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
Insertion of unrelated DNA into the cells of an organism. There are many
different reasons for gene transfer: for example, attempting to treat disease by
supplying patients with therapeutic genes. There are also many possible ways
to transfer genes. Most involve the use of a vector, such as a specially modified
virus that can take the gene along when it enters the cell.
NHGRI Glossary of Genetic Terms
genetic code
The way genetic information is stored in living organisms.
About Biotechnology
The biochemical basis of heredity consisting of codons in DNA and RNA that
determine the specific amino acid sequence in proteins and appear to be
uniform for all known forms of life.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
genetic engineering (GE)
see genetic modification
genetic modification (GM)
Altering the genetic material of cells or organisms in order to make them
capable of making new substances or performing new functions.
The Genomics Lexicon
The technique of removing, modifying or adding genes to a DNA molecule in
order to change the information it contains. By changing this information,
genetic engineering changes the type or amount of proteins an organism is
capable of producing.
About Biotechnology
Note: for purposes of the Commission, the term "genetic modification" is
defined in the Warrant establishing the Commission (see Appendix 1, page
159).
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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
genetically modified organism (GMO)
Organisms that have had genes from other species inserted into their
genome.
Functional Genomics Glossary
An organism whose genome has been altered by the inclusion of foreign
genetic material. This may be derived from other individuals of the same or
wholly different specifies, or of an artificial nature. Foreign genetic information
can be added to the organism during its early development and incorporated
in cells of the entire organism. Genetic information can also be added later in
development to selected portions of the organism.
Functional Genomics Glossary
genome
The total hereditary material of a cell.
About Biotechnology
The genetic complement contained in the chromosomes of a given organism,
usually the haploid chromosome state.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
also genome projects: Research and technology development efforts aimed at
mapping and sequencing some or all of the genome of human beings and
other organisms.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
herbicide
Any substance that is toxic to plants; usually used to kill specific unwanted
plants.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
Any agent, either organic or inorganic, used to destroy unwanted vegetation,
especially weeds and grasses; selective herbicides eliminate weeds without
destroying desirable crop or garden plants; nonselective herbicides destroy all
vegetation in the given area.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
homeopathy, homoeopathy
A system of medical practice that treats a disease especially by the
administration of minute doses of a remedy that would in healthy persons
produce symptoms similar to those of the disease.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
A system of therapy advanced in the late eighteenth century by Dr Samuel
Hahnemann, based on the theory that "like cures like"; if the conditions
produced by giving large doses of a drug to a healthy person are similar to
Section 7: Glossaries
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Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
conditions occurring as a natural consequence of disease, then that disease
may be treated by the same drug in much smaller doses.
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology
horizontal gene transfer
The transfer of genes or genetic material directly from one individual to
another by processes similar to infection. It is distinct from the normal process
of vertical gene transfer - from parents to offspring - which occurs in
reproduction. Natural agents exist which can transfer genes horizontally
between individuals. These are viruses, many of which cause diseases, and
other pieces of parasitic genetic material, called plasmids and transposons,
many of which carry and spread antibiotic and drug resistance genes. These
are able to get into cells and then make use of the cell's resources to multiply
many copies or to jump into (as well as out of) the cell's genome. The natural
agents are limited by species barriers, so that for example, pig viruses will infect
pigs, but not human beings, and cauliflower viruses will not attack tomatoes.
However, genetic engineers make artificial vectors (carriers of genes) by
combining parts of the most infectious natural agents, with their disease-
causing functions removed or disabled, and design them to overcome species
barriers, so the same vector may now transfer, say, human genes, which are
spliced into the vector, into the cells of all other mammals, or cells of plants.
ngin (Norfolk Genetic Information Network)
intellectual property
Useful artistic and industrial information and knowledge.
International Law Dictionary and Directory
That area of the law involving patents, copyrights, trademarks, trade secrets,
and plant variety protection.
Shaping Genes
marker genes
Genes that identify which plants [or animals] have been successfully
transformed.
About Biotechnology
monoculture
The agricultural practice of cultivating crops consisting of genetically similar
organisms.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
nutraceutical
Any substance that is a food or a part of a food and provides medical or health
benefits, including the prevention and treatment of disease. [Note:
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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
"Nutraceutical" and "nutriceutical" are frequently used interchangeably.]
Nutraceutical Alliance
nutriceutical
Nutriceutical is a term derived from the words `nutrition' and
`pharmaceutical'. A nutriceutical is a product that combines food and an
active ingredient such as a drug or a vitamin or some other chemical
substance. These products are on the leading edge of development and are a
nineties phenomenon. [Note: "Nutraceutical" and "nutriceutical" are
frequently used interchangeably.]
ScienceNet
organic
Of, relating to, yielding, or involving the use of food produced with the use of
feed or fertiliser of plant or animal origin without employment of chemically
formulated fertilisers, growth stimulants, antibiotics, or pesticides.
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
organism
An individual animal, plant, or single-celled life form.
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food
patent
Title by which a government grants the exclusive right to make use of an
invention for a fixed time period.
Money Words
pesticide
A substance that kills harmful organisms (for example, an insecticide or fungicide).
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
A chemical which is used to kill unwanted organisms such as rats, insects,
nematodes, etc. Pesticides often act as nerve poisons, and they are hazardous
to animals and humans (some pesticides can cause nerve or liver damage, birth
defects and cancer).
Biotech Life Sciences Dictionary
phage, bacteriophage
A virus for which the natural host is a bacterial cell. Used as a vector for
cloning segments of DNA.
Functional Genomics Glossary
(Bacteriophage) A virus that parasitises bacteria. It initiates infection by
attaching itself by its tail to the wall of bacterial cell. Through enzyme action
the bacteria wall is perforated and the bacteriophage DNA or RNA passes
Section 7: Glossaries
| H1 | p245
Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
through into bacterial cell. It uses the cell's machinery to make more
bacteriophage DNA and bacteriophages, which are released by breakage of
the bacterial cell.
A Dictionary of Biology
Plant Variety Rights
[New Zealand] A grant of Plant Variety Rights for a new plant variety gives the
holder the exclusive right to produce for sale and to sell propagating material
of the variety. In the case of vegetatively propagated fruit and ornamental
varieties Plant Variety Rights gives the holder the additional exclusive right
to propagate the protected variety for the purpose of the commercial
production of fruit, flowers or other products of the variety.
Plant Variety Rights Office
plasmid
A small, circular piece of DNA found outside the chromosome in bacteria.
Plasmids are the principal tools for inserting new genetic information into
microorganisms or plants.
About Biotechnology
A structure composed of DNA that is separate from the cell's genome. In
bacteria, plasmids confer a variety of traits and can be exchanged between
individuals - even those of different species. Plasmids can be manipulated in
the laboratory to deliver specific genetic sequences into a cell.
The Genomics Lexicon
protein
A biological molecule which consists of many amino acids chained together by
peptide bonds. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is determined by the
sequence of nucleotides in a DNA molecule. As the chain of amino acids is
being synthesised, it is also folded into higher order structures shaped, for
example, like helices or like flat sheets. Proteins are required for the structure,
function, and regulation of cells, tissues, and organs in the body.
The Genomics Lexicon
recombinant DNA
DNA molecules that have been created by combining DNA from more than
one source.
The Genomics Lexicon
Recombinant DNA is a fragment of DNA incorporated artificially into the
DNA molecule of a suitable vector so that it can express itself many times.
This way a large quantity of the DNA in question can be obtained. The DNA
is usually one that contains genes of interest, such as interferon, insulin, or
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Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
growth hormone. The DNA may also be intended to fix mutated genes
causing diseases, such as haemophilia or sickle cell anaemia. The vector could
be plasmids, bacteriophages, and cosmids (packaged plasmid DNA into a
phage particle).
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
also recombinant clones: Clones containing recombinant DNA molecules.
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary
also recombinant DNA technology: The technology upon which genetic
engineering or genetic modification is based. The process involves DNA
being joined together in novel combinations.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
seed bank
A facility designed for the ex situ conservation of individual plant varieties
through seed preservation and storage.
World Resource Institute
also seeds naturally occurring on or in the soil.
sequencing
Determining the order of nucleotides in a DNA or RNA molecule, or
determining the order of amino acids in a protein.
The Genomics Lexicon
substantial equivalence
A comparative technique recommended by the Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development (OECD): when faced with a novel or
modified food or food product, you search for its nearest equivalent amongst
existing organisms used as food or sources of food. These can then be used as
the basis for comparison to assess risk, given that there should be extensive
knowledge available.
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food
`super-weed'/`super-bug'
A weed or pest that has developed a resistance to a herbicide/pesticide that
once destroyed it.
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food
terminator technology
The current popular term applying to the methods used to render plant seeds
sterile and unable to germinate.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
Section 7: Glossaries
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Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
transgene
A gene transferred to a recipient organism using recombinant technology.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
transgenic
An organism that has been genetically engineered to contain the genes from
another species.
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food
An organism whose genome has been altered by the inclusion of foreign
genetic material. This foreign genetic material may be derived from other
individuals of the same species or from wholly different species. Genetic
material may also be of an artificial nature. Foreign genetic information can
be added to the organism during its early development and incorporated in
cells of the entire organism. As an example, mice embryos have been given
the gene for rat growth hormone allowing mice to grow into large adults.
Genetic information can also be added later in development to selected
portions of the organism. As an example, experimental genetic therapy to
treat cystic fibrosis involves selective addition of genes responsible for lung
function and is administered directly to the lung tissue of children and adults.
The Genomics Lexicon
transposon
A [DNA] sequence that can move about in the genome of an organism.
Marine Biological Laboratory
A segment of DNA flanked by transposable elements that is capable of
moving its location in the genome.
Bernie May
vaccine
A preparation of dead or weakened pathogen, or of derived antigenic
determinants, that is used to induce formation of antibodies or immunity
against the pathogen.
An Agricultural and Environmental Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary
vector
An organism or a biological molecule used to transfer material to a different
organism or cell. In genetic modification, this refers to an organism, bacterium
or plasmid able to transfer DNA.
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification
A self-replicating DNA molecule that exists with, but is separate from the
genome of the host cell. Many different vectors have been identified and
genetically engineered for use in molecular biology. DNA inserted into a
p248 |
Section 7: Glossaries
Report Appendix 3 | Roy al Commission on Genetic M odification
vector will be replicated along with the vector. In this manner, DNA of
interest can be obtained in large quantities, ie, cloned. For example, the
human insulin gene can be cloned into the plasmid vector pBr 322 which, in
turn, will replicate in E. coli cultures.
Bernie May
also cloning vector: DNA molecule originating from a virus, a plasmid, or the
cell of a higher organism into which another DNA fragment of appropriate
size can be integrated without loss of the vector's capacity for self-replication;
vectors introduce foreign DNA into host cells, where it can be reproduced in
large quantities. Examples are plasmids, cosmids, and yeast artificial
chromosomes; vectors are often recombinant molecules containing DNA
sequences from several sources.
The Genomics Lexicon
virus
An infectious agent composed of a single type of nucleic acid, DNA or RNA,
enclosed in a coat of protein. Viruses can multiply only within living cells.
About Biotechnology
Viruses consist of a piece of nucleic acid covered by protein. Viruses can only
reproduce by infecting a cell and using the cell's mechanisms for self-
replication. They can cause disease; modified viruses can also be used as a tool
in gene therapy to introduce new DNA into a cell's genome.
The Genomics Lexicon
xenotransplant
Transplantation of tissue or organs between organisms of different species,
genus, or family. A common example is the use of pig heart valves in humans.
The Genomics Lexicon
References and sources of information
Sources of definitions for the glossary of technical terms are usually listed by the
title of the book or web resource rather than by author. Web addresses applied in
April­May 2000.
A Dictionary of Biology. Abercrombie, M, Hickman, CJ, Johnson, ML. 1973 (6th edn).
Penguin Books.
About Biotechnology. North Carolina Biotechnology Center. http://
www.ncbiotech.org/aboutbt/glossary.cfm
Academic Press Dictionary of Science and Technology. Harcourt, Inc. http://
www.harcourt.com/dictionary/def/3/1/5/7/3157200.html
An Agricultural and Environmetal Biotechnology Annotated Dictionary. Allender-
Hagedorn, S. Hagedorn, C. http://filebox.vt.edu/cals/cses/chagedor/glossary.html
Bernie May, see May, B.
Section 7: Glossaries
| H1 | p249
Royal Commission on Genetic Modification | Report Appendix 3
BioTech Life Sciences Dictionary. http://biotech.icmb.utexas.edu/search/dict-search.phtml
Cambridge International Dictionary of English. 2000. Cambridge University Press. http:/
/dictionary.cambridge.org/
Environmental Performance Indicators Programme. Glossary of terms. Ministry of the
Environment. http://www.mfe.govt.nz/monitoring/epi/sigfeb08.htm
Functional Genomics Glossary. http://www.healthtech.com/glossaries/content/
functional%20genomics%20gloss.htm
International Law Dictionary and Directory. http://august1.com/pubs/dict/i.htm
MAF Biosecurity Authority. Standard 154.03.02. Containment Facilities for
Microorganisms. http://www.maf.govt.nz/Standards/anbio/tandcstd/micro.pdf
MAF Rural Bulletin, May 1999. http://www.maf.govt.nz/MAFnet/publications/
ruralbulletin/rbmay99/rbmay99-05.htm
Marine Biological Laboratory. Workshop on Molecular Evolution. Glossary.http://
newfish.mbl.edu/Course/Glossary/
May, B. Glossary (Abbreviations and Definitions) Used in Molecular Studies of
Genomic Variation. http://genome-lab.ucdavis.edu/glossary.htm
Merriam-Webster's Collegiate Dictionary. http://www.m-w.com/
Money Words. http://www.moneywords.com/glossary/
ngin (Norfolk Genetic Information Network). Ho, M. March 22, 1999. Report on
horizontal gene transfer. http://members.tripod.com/~ngin/article9.htm
NHGRI Glossary of Genetic Terms. http://www.nhgri.nih.gov/DIR/VIP/Glossary/
pub_glossary.cgi
Nutraceutical Alliance. http://www.nutraceuticalalliance.com/about_definition.htm
Plant Variety Rights Office. http://www.pvr.govt.nz/
ScienceNet. http://www.sciencenet.org.uk/database/Biology/
Shaping Genes. Ethics, Law and Science of Using New Genetic Technology in
Medicine and Agriculture. Darryl R. J. Macer, Ph.D. Eubios Ethics Institute 1990.
http://www.biol.tsukuba.ac.jp/~macer/SG18.html
The Current Uses of Genetic Modification. Bellamy, AR. Background paper to the Royal
Commission on Genetic Modification. http://www.gmcommission.govt.nz/
The Genomics Lexicon. The Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America.
http://genomics.phrma.org/lexicon
The Pharmaceutical Journal 265 (No 7104): 57­58. July 8, 2000. Articles. http://
www.pharmj.com/Editorial/20000708/articles/nutraceuticals1.html
Virology/Immunology. http://glindquester.biology.rhodes.edu/virolimm/antigens.html
Waiter, there's a Gene in My Food: Glossary. Australian Broadcasting Corporation
http://www.abe.net.au/science/slab/consconf/glossary.htm
World Foundation for Environment and Development. Information Resources. Glossary
of terms. http://www.wfed.org/resources/glossary/
World Resource Institute. Biodiversity Glossary of Terms. http://www.wri.org/wri/
biodiv/gbs-glos.html#RS